idleshare

Water vapour adds a degree to global warming

2009-02-27T01:42:00.001-08:00

Water vapour released into the air adds one degree Celsius to global warming for every one contributed by humanity through other greenhouse gas emissions.

The evidence for this phenomenon, long-debated among climate scientists, is now indisputable, according to a review of the evidence by Andrew Dessler of Texas A&M University and Steven Sherwood of the University of New South Wales (UNSW).

Known to science as water vapour feedback, it is responsible for a significant portion of the warming predicted to occur over the next century, according to Dessler and Sherwood. This is because water vapour itself is a greenhouse gas.

As a result of burning fossil fuels and other human activities, rising temperatures are increasing the volume of naturally occurring evaporation on our warm, watery planet, they point out. In turn, that evaporated water contributes additional global warming.

Dessler and Sherwood based their statement on studies of how atmospheric water vapour varies in line with the natural cycles that warm and cool the planet, such as the cyclical temperature change caused by the seasons and El Nino events.

'It's a vicious cycle: warmer temperatures mean higher humidity, which in turn leads to even more warming,' says Dessler, a professor.

Recent estimates suggest the earth will warm by between two to four degrees Celsius over the next century - a scenario that could have devastating long-term consequences, said an UNSW release.

The study was published in the latest issue of Science.

Scientists identify obesity gene

2009-02-27T01:40:00.000-08:00

A group of researchers led by a scientist of Indian origin have determined that a specific gene plays a role in the weight-gain response to a high-fat diet.

The finding in an animal study suggests that blocking this gene could one day be a therapeutic strategy to reduce diet-related obesity and associated disorders, such as diabetes and liver damage, in humans.

Researchers found that a diet rich in fat induced production of this gene, called protein kinase C beta (PKC beta), in the fat cells of mice. These mice rapidly gained weight while eating a high-fat diet for 12 weeks.

On the other hand, mice genetically engineered to lack PKC beta gained relatively little weight and showed minimal health effects after eating the same high-fat diet.

'So we now know this gene is induced by a high-fat diet in fat cells, and a deficiency of this gene leads to resistance to fat-induced obesity and related insulin resistance and liver damage,' said Kamal Mehta, study co-author and professor of molecular and cellular biochemistry in Ohio State University College of Medicine.

'It could be that the high-fat diet is a signal to the body to store more fat. And when that gene is not there, then the fat storage cannot occur,' he said.

Research suggests that rather than storing fat, mice lacking the gene burn fat more rapidly than they would if the PKC beta were present, Mehta said, according to a Ohio release.

The research is available online in Hepatology and is scheduled for publication.

Mesothelioma Legal Help

2008-12-30T05:21:00.000-08:00

Getting legal help after your mesothelioma diagnosis is an important step toward protecting your legal rights. Most mesothelioma victims, however, have difficulty enough just dealing with the diagnosis—much less its legal implications. We can help. Contact us today to arrange a complimentary consultation to learn more about your legal options and get the legal help you need.

Recovering the Costs of Mesothelioma

The human costs of a chronic and life-threatening disease such as mesothelioma can be staggering. Years of mesothelioma treatment, medical costs, and hospice care can run into the tens of thousands of dollars, and few patients and their families are able to pay these costs on their own. Health insurance may not cover all the costs. In addition, the loss of a patient's income can be particularly burdensome, and the emotional costs of a potentially fatal disease are difficult to estimate.

Thousands of Americans have contracted mesothelioma after working with or being exposed to products that cause this pernicious disease, and if you are one such victim, you may be eligible for monetary damages from the product's maker or from your employer.

How an Attorney Can Help

Mesothelioma cases are complex matters. It is not necessarily obvious that there is a cause-and-effect link between a product or environment and someone's mesothelioma. An experienced mesothelioma attorney or law firm can help unravel the link between your mesothelioma and its cause.

Losses Due to Mesothelioma

An attorney's guidance is also very helpful when estimating a mesothelioma patient's losses. Such losses often involve:

* Medical costs including hospital care
* Loss of wages and/or earning capacity
* Loss of companionship or a spousal or parental relationship
* Loss of financial support
* Pain and suffering
* Funeral and burial costs
* Out-of-pocket expenses

Protecting Your Legal Rights

The maker of the asbestos product that caused your mesothelioma or the employer where you worked and contracted mesothelioma may not be agreeable to the idea that they should pay the damages you've incurred due to this disease. In such cases, representation by an attorney or law firm can make all the difference in the outcome of your case.

Just as in other types of personal injury cases, a mesothelioma attorney can:

* Investigate your case, including interviewing witnesses and getting documents
* Show the causation between the product or environment and your mesothelioma
* Help you estimate your total losses due to mesothelioma
* Negotiate with the defendant company on your behalf
* Represent you in court and other forums
* Help recover a settlement or verdict award

Get the Answers and Legal Help You Need

Whether you're experiencing the early symptoms of mesothelioma or are at a more advanced stage of the disease, or if you’ve lost a loved one to this devastating disease, consulting an experienced mesothelioma attorney will give you more insight into your options and your best course of action.

Contact a mesothelioma lawyer today to arrange a private consultation, and get the answers and legal help you need.

What is Asbestosis?

2008-12-30T05:19:00.001-08:00

Asbestosis is a debilitating and sometimes deadly respiratory disorder caused by inhaling high levels of asbestos fibers, which leads to scarring of the lung tissue and diminished breathing capacity.

Asbestosis Risks

Asbestos fibers were commonly used in insulation and other building materials prior to 1975 when it was discovered to cause serious and potentially fatal diseases such as asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.

Individuals with prolonged exposure to asbestos fibers are among those most likely to develop asbestosis and/or other asbestos-related diseases. Also, those who work around asbestos fibers may carry the fibers home on their clothing, increasing the risk to their family members. Not all individuals with a history of asbestos exposure develop asbestosis. However, the key to diminishing the risk is to stop asbestos exposure altogether.

Asbestosis Symptoms

Common symptoms of asbestosis include:

* Coughing
* Chest pain
* Shortness of breath
* Tightness in chest

Other less common symptoms may include nail abnormalities and clubbing of fingers.

Asbestosis Diagnosis and Treatment

The first step a doctor usually takes in diagnosing asbestosis is to listen for a crackling sound in the patient's chest. The doctor may then use a chest x-ray, CT scan of the lungs, or pulmonary function tests to definitively establish a diagnosis of asbestosis.

While no cure for asbestosis is currently available, a number of mesothelioma treatments can help to alleviate symptoms. Some of these supportive treatments include postural drainage, chest percussion, and vibration - all of which serve to remove secretions from the lungs.

To further aid respiration, doctors may prescribe aerosol medications that thin lung secretions or employ the use of oxygen masks.

The prognosis for individuals diagnosed with asbestosis depends on the duration and extent of their asbestos exposure as well as the progression of the disease. Some patients with asbestosis develop complications such as malignant mesothelioma and pleural effusion. Developing mesothelioma significantly decreases an individual's chances of survival. Seventy-five percent of those also diagnosed with malignant mesothelioma die within one year.

Asbestos Lawsuits

2008-12-30T05:16:00.000-08:00

Asbestos lawsuits are filed by plaintiffs who have suffered as the result of asbestos-related illness. Plaintiffs in asbestos lawsuits can include the victims of asbestos exposure, or their families or loved ones. Defendants against asbestos lawsuits are those parties considered responsible for the asbestos exposure. In the past, targets of asbestos lawsuits have included:

* Employers
* Asbestos manufacturers
* Asbestos installers
* Landlords
* Leasing agents

Financial Recovery

The purpose of asbestos lawsuits is to recover financial damages that result from asbestos related illness. Possible financial recoveries from asbestos lawsuits include:

* cost of medical bills
* lost wages
* other associated costs

In some asbestos lawsuits, punitive damages (designed to punish the defendant) are also awarded. A few states permit asbestos lawsuits to be filed by people who reasonably expect to develop asbestos-related illnesses. These asbestos lawsuits regulations allow individuals exposed to asbestos to attempt to prepare financially for likely diseases. Many asbestos lawsuits have served to help publicize the adverse health effects of asbestos exposure; increasing numbers of asbestos lawsuits are decided for the plaintiffs as information about asbestos exposure becomes common knowledge.

Although asbestos lawsuits can be complicated at first glance, a number of individuals have benefited from asbestos lawsuits, including families of victims, left with enormous medical and funeral costs. For more about asbestos lawsuits and whether your situation is appropriate for this proceeding, an attorney familiar with asbestos lawsuits may be the appropriate person to consult.

How Can a Mesothelioma Attorney Help?

Mesothelioma attorneys can help victims in recovering funds related to asbestos-caused mesothelioma. Many of the mesothelioma attorneys with experience in this field have successfully claimed costs from those responsible for asbestos exposure. Mesothelioma attorneys can regain medical costs, lost wages, and punitive fees for victims and their families.

A mesothelioma attorney can meet with victims to discuss liability in mesothelioma cases; using their prior experience, mesothelioma attorneys can often predict the likelihood of success of a particular case. A good mesothelioma attorney will have the legal knowledge and connections to pressure reluctant parties into accepting accountability; many mesothelioma attorneys end up enabling their client to collect without ever having to go to trial. Mesothelioma attorneys can also help put their clients in touch with the clients of other mesothelioma attorneys if both parties agree, so that the parties represented by both mesothelioma attorneys may exchange information and supportespecially important with such a rare disease.

Contact an Experienced Attorney

If you or a loved one has suffered from mesothelioma, please Contact a Mesothelioma Attorney to learn more information on mesothelioma and your legal rights!

Mesothelioma Lawsuit

2008-12-30T05:15:00.000-08:00

A mesothelioma lawsuit is filed by a victim of mesothelioma in order to recover damages associated with their development of this asbestos related cancer. A mesothelioma case can help a victim seek reparations for medical expenses, lost income and pain and suffering. Mesothelioma develops almost exclusively as a result of toxic exposure to asbestos. This disease can remain latent in a victim for up to forty years; therefore people who were exposed to asbestos in the environment in the 1950s may still be at risk for developing this disease.

Who Is At Risk?

Asbestos has been used to make more than 5000 products in the last few hundred years. Asbestos is a naturally occurring group of minerals that is used to make products such as vehicle brakes and building materials. Asbestos is added to these products because it aids in heat and corrosion resistance. The deadly effects of asbestos have been known for over sixty years, though it continues to be used in a variety of industries. People in the construction, automotive, factory, railroad, shipyard, and custodial industries may all be at risk for the serious health consequences resulting from toxic exposure to asbestos.

What Is Mesothelioma?

Mesothelioma is a rare but fatal cancer that is caused by this harmful exposure to asbestos. Mesothelioma affects the mesothelium that surrounds and protects the internal organs of the body and can affect any organ in the body including the brain, heart and reproductive organs. Pleural mesothelioma is the most common and affects the lining surrounding the lungs. This lining can become cancerous when asbestos is inhaled at toxic levels. Many times the disease is asymptomatic, though symptoms may include a persistent cough, pain in the chest area or shortness of breath.

Mesothelioma also affects the peritoneal lining of the organs in the abdominal cavity. This type of mesothelioma can also remain latent and asymptomatic for several years. If symptoms do develop they might include pain and swelling of the belly, nausea, bowel problems, weight loss, swollen feet, and anemia.

More Common in Men

Mesothelioma affects men three to five times more often than it affects women. It is diagnosed in patients at an average age of 50 to 70 years. Once diagnosed, mesothelioma is fatal. The average survival time after diagnosis is only one year, because the cancer is usually in its advanced stages by the time it is discovered. For people who are diagnosed earlier, about one half survive for two years and twenty percent make it to five years.

Why File a Mesothelioma Lawsuit?

A mesothelioma lawsuit can be filed in the legal system in order to seek reparations for medical expenses, loss of income and pain and suffering associated with the development of this disease. Employers and manufactures of asbestos containing products can be held liable for the injuries that develop as a result, especially when they were aware of the risks associated with the level of exposure they caused or permitted. Contacting a qualified lawyer is often the first step in discovering what your legal rights and options might be in a mesothelioma lawsuit. For more information on a mesothelioma lawsuit, please Contact a Mesothelioma Attorney who is familiar with other mesothelioma cases.

Mesothelioma Attorney

2008-12-30T05:12:00.000-08:00

The mission of a mesothelioma attorney is to help obtain compensation for individuals with this life-threatening cancer. The vast majority of cases of mesothelioma are due to exposure to the carcinogenic mineral asbestos, which was used in thousands of products dating from the 1880s through 1989. Every mesothelioma attorney knows of the devastation that this cancer wreaks on patients and their families.

Asbestos Exposure Is the Culprit

It’s estimated that since the early 1940s, at least three million Americans received high-level exposure to asbestos, often at their workplaces. Others have been exposed to asbestos at home, whether by washing asbestos dust-laden clothing or from the many building materials that contain asbestos. Still others grew up attending schools where asbestos was used in walls, ceilings, flooring, even bricks.

The asbestos industry was aware for over 60 years that their product caused mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis, but the management of the asbestos companies routinely kept that information from their employees, choosing to maximize company profits and savings at the expense of the employees.

Compensation from Defendant Companies

The medical bills alone for mesothelioma often run into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. Years of lost income or reduced earning capacity further add to the losses. When a loved one with mesothelioma passes away, the loss of support and companionship and the emotional pain and suffering can all be overwhelming. A mesothelioma attorney understands these losses, having helped other victims and their families obtain compensation for their damages.

In fact, mesothelioma attorneys have helped asbestos victims across the country receive millions of dollars worth of compensation for:

* Medical treatments including surgery and chemotherapy
* Hospice and/or palliative care
* Funeral/burial expenses
* Pain and suffering
* Loss of companionship
* More

If you are one of the thousands of patients who have not received fair compensation for your losses, a mesothelioma attorney can help you.

Contact an Experienced Mesothelioma Attorney

Attorneys who represent mesothelioma patients are prepared to discuss your circumstances with you and advise you of your legal rights. Whether you simply have questions or need full legal representation, the first step is to contact a mesothelioma attorney today for a complimentary consultation.

Mesothelioma

2008-11-07T02:30:00.000-08:00

Mesothelioma is a form of cancer that is almost always caused by previous exposure to asbestos. In this disease, malignant cells develop in the mesothelium, a protective lining that covers most of the body's internal organs. Its most common site is the pleura (outer lining of the lungs and internal chest wall), but it may also occur in the peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity), the heart, the pericardium (a sac that surrounds the heart) or tunica vaginalis.

Most people who develop mesothelioma have worked on jobs where they inhaled asbestos particles, or they have been exposed to asbestos dust and fiber in other ways. Washing the clothes of a family member who worked with asbestos can also put a person at risk for developing mesothelioma.Unlike lung cancer, there is no association between mesothelioma and smoking. Compensation via asbestos funds or lawsuits is an important issue in mesothelioma (see asbestos and the law).

The symptoms of mesothelioma include shortness of breath due to pleural effusion (fluid between the lung and the chest wall) or chest wall pain, and general symptoms such as weight loss. The diagnosis may be suspected with chest X-ray and CT scan, and is confirmed with a biopsy (tissue sample) and microscopic examination. A thoracoscopy (inserting a tube with a camera into the chest) can be used to take biopsies. It allows the introduction of substances such as talc to obliterate the pleural space (called pleurodesis), which prevents more fluid from accumulating and pressing on the lung. Despite treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy or sometimes surgery, the disease carries a poor prognosis. Research about screening tests for the early detection of mesothelioma is ongoing.

Pathophysiology

2008-11-07T02:28:00.002-08:00

The mesothelium consists of a single layer of flattened to cuboidal cells forming the epithelial lining of the serous cavities of the body including the peritoneal, pericardial and pleural cavities. Deposition of asbestos fibres in the parenchyma of the lung may result in the penetration of the visceral pleura from where the fibre can then be carried to the pleural surface, thus leading to the development of malignant mesothelial plaques. The processes leading to the development of peritoneal mesothelioma remain unresolved, although it has been proposed that asbestos fibres from the lung are transported to the abdomen and associated organs via the lymphatic system. Additionally, asbestos fibres may be deposited in the gut after ingestion of sputum contaminated with asbestos fibres.

Pleural contamination with asbestos or other mineral fibres has been shown to cause cancer. Long thin asbestos fibers (blue asbestos, amphibole fibers) are more potent carcinogens than "feathery fibers" (chrysotile or white asbestos fibers). However, there is now evidence that smaller particles may be more dangerous than the larger fibers. They remain suspended in the air where they can be inhaled, and may penetrate more easily and deeper into the lungs. "We probably will find out a lot more about the health aspects of asbestos from [the World Trade Center attack], unfortunately," said Dr. Alan Fein, chief of pulmonary and critical-care medicine at North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System. Dr. Fein has treated several patients for "World Trade Center syndrome" or respiratory ailments from brief exposures of only a day or two near the collapsed buildings.

Mesothelioma development in rats has been demonstrated following intra-pleural inoculation of phosphorylated chrysotile fibres. It has been suggested that in humans, transport of fibres to the pleura is critical to the pathogenesis of mesothelioma. This is supported by the observed recruitment of significant numbers of macrophages and other cells of the immune system to localised lesions of accumulated asbestos fibres in the pleural and peritoneal cavities of rats. These lesions continued to attract and accumulate macrophages as the disease progressed, and cellular changes within the lesion culminated in a morphologically malignant tumour.

Experimental evidence suggests that asbestos acts as a complete carcinogen with the development of mesothelioma occurring in sequential stages of initiation and promotion. The molecular mechanisms underlying the malignant transformation of normal mesothelial cells by asbestos fibres remain unclear despite the demonstration of its oncogenic capabilities. However, complete in vitro transformation of normal human mesothelial cells to malignant phenotype following exposure to asbestos fibres has not yet been achieved. In general, asbestos fibres are thought to act through direct physical interactions with the cells of the mesothelium in conjunction with indirect effects following interaction with inflammatory cells such as macrophages.

Analysis of the interactions between asbestos fibres and DNA has shown that phagocytosed fibres are able to make contact with chromosomes, often adhering to the chromatin fibres or becoming entangled within the chromosome. This contact between the asbestos fibre and the chromosomes or structural proteins of the spindle apparatus can induce complex abnormalities. The most common abnormality is monosomy of chromosome 22. Other frequent abnormalities include structural rearrangement of 1p, 3p, 9p and 6q chromosome arms.

Common gene abnormalities in mesothelioma cell lines include deletion of the tumor suppressor genes:

* Neurofibromatosis type 2 at 22q12
* P16INK4A
* P14ARF

Asbestos has also been shown to mediate the entry of foreign DNA into target cells. Incorporation of this foreign DNA may lead to mutations and oncogenesis by several possible mechanisms:

* Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes
* Activation of oncogenes
* Activation of proto-oncogenes due to incorporation of foreign DNA containing a promoter region
* Activation of DNA repair enzymes, which may be prone to error
* Activation of telomerase
* Prevention of apoptosis

Asbestos fibers have been shown to alter the function and secretory properties of macrophages, ultimately creating conditions which favour the development of mesothelioma. Following asbestos phagocytosis, macrophages generate increased amounts of hydroxyl radicals, which are normal by-products of cellular anaerobic metabolism. However, these free radicals are also known clastogenic and membrane-active agents thought to promote asbestos carcinogenicity. These oxidants can participate in the oncogenic process by directly and indirectly interacting with DNA, modifying membrane-associated cellular events, including oncogene activation and perturbation of cellular antioxidant defences.

Asbestos also may possess immunosuppressive properties. For example, chrysotile fibres have been shown to depress the in vitro proliferation of phytohemagglutinin-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes, suppress natural killer cell lysis and significantly reduce lymphokine-activated killer cell viability and recovery. Furthermore, genetic alterations in asbestos-activated macrophages may result in the release of potent mesothelial cell mitogens such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) which in turn, may induce the chronic stimulation and proliferation of mesothelial cells after injury by asbestos fibres.

Staging

2008-11-07T02:28:00.001-08:00

Mesothelioma is described as localized if the cancer is found only on the membrane surface where it originated. It is classified as advanced if it has spread beyond the original membrane surface to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, lungs, chest wall, or abdominal organs.

Screening

2008-11-07T02:27:00.000-08:00

There is no universally agreed protocol for screening people who have been exposed to asbestos. Screening tests might diagnose mesothelioma earlier than conventional methods thus improving the survival prospects for patients. The serum osteopontin level might be useful in screening asbestos-exposed people for mesothelioma. The level of soluble mesothelin-related protein is elevated in the serum of about 75% of patients at diagnosis and it has been suggested that it may be useful for screening. Doctors have begun testing the Mesomark assay which measures levels of soluble mesothelin-related proteins (SMRPs) released by diseased mesothelioma cells.

Diagnosing mesothelioma

2008-11-07T02:26:00.002-08:00

Diagnosing mesothelioma is often difficult, because the symptoms are similar to those of a number of other conditions. Diagnosis begins with a review of the patient's medical history. A history of exposure to asbestos may increase clinical suspicion for mesothelioma. A physical examination is performed, followed by chest X-ray and often lung function tests. The X-ray may reveal pleural thickening commonly seen after asbestos exposure and increases suspicion of mesothelioma. A CT (or CAT) scan or an MRI is usually performed. If a large amount of fluid is present, abnormal cells may be detected by cytology if this fluid is aspirated with a syringe. For pleural fluid this is done by a pleural tap or chest drain, in ascites with an paracentesis or ascitic drain and in a pericardial effusion with pericardiocentesis. While absence of malignant cells on cytology does not completely exclude mesothelioma, it makes it much more unlikely, especially if an alternative diagnosis can be made (e.g. tuberculosis, heart failure).

If cytology is positive or a plaque is regarded as suspicious, a biopsy is needed to confirm a diagnosis of mesothelioma. A doctor removes a sample of tissue for examination under a microscope by a pathologist. A biopsy may be done in different ways, depending on where the abnormal area is located. If the cancer is in the chest, the doctor may perform a thoracoscopy. In this procedure, the doctor makes a small cut through the chest wall and puts a thin, lighted tube called a thoracoscope into the chest between two ribs. Thoracoscopy allows the doctor to look inside the chest and obtain tissue samples.

If the cancer is in the abdomen, the doctor may perform a laparoscopy. To obtain tissue for examination, the doctor makes a small incision in the abdomen and inserts a special instrument into the abdominal cavity. If these procedures do not yield enough tissue, more extensive diagnostic surgery may be necessary.

**Typical immunohistochemistry results**
Positive	Negative
EMA (epithelial membrane antigen) in a membranous distribution	CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen)
WT1 (Wilms' tumour 1)	B72.3
Calretinin	MOC-3 1
Mesothelin-1	CD15
Cytokeratin 5/6	Ber-EP4
HBME-1 (human mesothelial cell 1)	TTF-1 (thyroid transcription factor-1)

Signs and symptoms of mesothelioma

2008-11-07T02:26:00.001-08:00

Symptoms of mesothelioma may not appear until 20 to 50 years after exposure to asbestos. Shortness of breath, cough, and pain in the chest due to an accumulation of fluid in the pleural space are often symptoms of pleural mesothelioma.

Symptoms of peritoneal mesothelioma include weight loss and cachexia, abdominal swelling and pain due to ascites (a buildup of fluid in the abdominal cavity). Other symptoms of peritoneal mesothelioma may include bowel obstruction, blood clotting abnormalities, anemia, and fever. If the cancer has spread beyond the mesothelium to other parts of the body, symptoms may include pain, trouble swallowing, or swelling of the neck or face.

These symptoms may be caused by mesothelioma or by other, less serious conditions.

Mesothelioma that affects the pleura can cause these signs and symptoms:

* chest wall pain
* pleural effusion, or fluid surrounding the lung
* shortness of breath
* fatigue or anemia
* wheezing, hoarseness, or cough
* blood in the sputum (fluid) coughed up (hemoptysis)

In severe cases, the person may have many tumor masses. The individual may develop a pneumothorax, or collapse of the lung. The disease may metastasize, or spread, to other parts of the body.

Tumors that affect the abdominal cavity often do not cause symptoms until they are at a late stage. Symptoms include:

* abdominal pain
* ascites, or an abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen
* a mass in the abdomen
* problems with bowel function
* weight loss

In severe cases of the disease, the following signs and symptoms may be present:

* blood clots in the veins, which may cause thrombophlebitis
* disseminated intravascular coagulation, a disorder causing severe bleeding in many body organs
* jaundice, or yellowing of the eyes and skin
* low blood sugar level
* pleural effusion
* pulmonary emboli, or blood clots in the arteries of the lungs
* severe ascites

A mesothelioma does not usually spread to the bone, brain, or adrenal glands. Pleural tumors are usually found only on one side of the lungs.

Epidemiology

2008-11-07T02:25:00.000-08:00

Incidence

Although reported incidence rates have increased in the past 20 years, mesothelioma is still a relatively rare cancer. The incidence rate is approximately one per 1,000,000. The highest incidence is found in Britain, Australia and Belgium: 30 per 1,000,000 per year.[7] For comparison, populations with high levels of smoking can have a lung cancer incidence of over 1,000 per 1,000,000. Incidence of malignant mesothelioma currently ranges from about 7 to 40 per 1,000,000 in industrialized Western nations, depending on the amount of asbestos exposure of the populations during the past several decades.It has been estimated that incidence may have peaked at 15 per 1,000,000 in the United States in 2004. Incidence is expected to continue increasing in other parts of the world. Mesothelioma occurs more often in men than in women and risk increases with age, but this disease can appear in either men or women at any age. Approximately one fifth to one third of all mesotheliomas are peritoneal.

Between 1940 and 1979, approximately 27.5 million people were occupationally exposed to asbestos in the United States . Between 1973 and 1984, there has been a threefold increase in the diagnosis of pleural mesothelioma in Caucasian males. From 1980 to the late 1990s, the death rate from mesothelioma in the USA increased from 2,000 per year to 3,000, with men four times more likely to acquire it than women. These rates may not be accurate, since it is possible that many cases of mesothelioma are misdiagnosed as adenocarcinoma of the lung, which is difficult to differentiate from mesothelioma.

Risk factors

Working with asbestos is the major risk factor for mesothelioma.Mesothelioma is now known to occur in those who are genetically pre-disposed to it. A history of asbestos exposure exists in almost all cases. However, mesothelioma has been reported in some individuals without any known exposure to asbestos. In rare cases, mesothelioma has also been associated with irradiation, intrapleural thorium dioxide (Thorotrast), and inhalation of other fibrous silicates, such as erionite.

Asbestos is the name of a group of minerals that occur naturally as masses of strong, flexible fibers that can be separated into thin threads and woven. Asbestos has been widely used in many industrial products, including cement, brake linings, roof shingles, flooring products, textiles, and insulation. If tiny asbestos particles float in the air, especially during the manufacturing process, they may be inhaled or swallowed, and can cause serious health problems. In addition to mesothelioma, exposure to asbestos increases the risk of lung cancer, asbestosis (a noncancerous, chronic lung ailment), and other cancers, such as those of the larynx and kidney.

The combination of smoking and asbestos exposure significantly increases a person's risk of developing cancer of the airways (lung cancer, bronchial carcinoma). The Kent brand of cigarettes used asbestos in its filters for the first few years of production in the 1950s and some cases of mesothelioma have resulted. Smoking modern cigarettes does not appear to increase the risk of mesothelioma.

Some studies suggest that simian virus 40 (SV40) may act as a cofactor in the development of mesothelioma.

Exposure

Asbestos was known in antiquity, but it wasn't mined and widely used commercially until the late 1800s. Its use greatly increased during World War II. Since the early 1940s, millions of American workers have been exposed to asbestos dust. Initially, the risks associated with asbestos exposure were not publicly known. However, an increased risk of developing mesothelioma was later found among shipyard workers, people who work in asbestos mines and mills, producers of asbestos products, workers in the heating and construction industries, and other tradespeople. Today, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets limits for acceptable levels of asbestos exposure in the workplace, and created guidelines for engineering controls and respirators, protective clothing, exposure monitoring, hygiene facilities and practices, warning signs, labeling, recordkeeping, and medical exams. By contrast, the British Government's Health and Safety Executive (HSE) states formally that any threshold for mesothelioma must be at a very low level and it is widely agreed that if any such threshold does exist at all, then it cannot currently be quantified. For practical purposes, therefore, HSE does not assume that any such threshold exists. People who work with asbestos wear personal protective equipment to lower their risk of exposure. Recent findings have shown that a mineral called erionite has been known to cause genetically pre-dispositioned individuals to have malignant mesothelioma rates much higher than those not pre-dispositioned genetically. A study in Cappadocia, Turkey has shown that 3 villiages in Turkey have death rates of 51% attributed to erionite related mesothelioma.

Occupational

Exposure to asbestos fibres has been recognised as an occupational health hazard since the early 1900s. Several epidemiological studies have associated exposure to asbestos with the development of lesions such as asbestos bodies in the sputum, pleural plaques, diffuse pleural thickening, asbestosis, carcinoma of the lung and larynx, gastrointestinal tumours, and diffuse mesothelioma of the pleura and peritoneum.

The documented presence of asbestos fibres in water supplies and food products has fostered concerns about the possible impact of long-term and, as yet, unknown exposure of the general population to these fibres. Although many authorities consider brief or transient exposure to asbestos fibres as inconsequential and an unlikely risk factor, some epidemiologists claim that there is no risk threshold. Cases of mesothelioma have been found in people whose only exposure was breathing the air through ventilation systems. Other cases had very minimal (3 months or less) direct exposure.

Commercial asbestos mining at Wittenoom, Western Australia, occurred between 1945 and 1966. A cohort study of miners employed at the mine reported that while no deaths occurred within the first 10 years after crocidolite exposure, 85 deaths attributable to mesothelioma had occurred by 1985. By 1994, 539 reported deaths due to mesothelioma had been reported in Western Australia.

Paraoccupational secondary exposure

Family members and others living with asbestos workers have an increased risk of developing mesothelioma, and possibly other asbestos related diseases. This risk may be the result of exposure to asbestos dust brought home on the clothing and hair of asbestos workers. To reduce the chance of exposing family members to asbestos fibres, asbestos workers are usually required to shower and change their clothing before leaving the workplace.

Asbestos in buildings

Many building materials used in both public and domestic premises prior to the banning of asbestos may contain asbestos. Those performing renovation works or DIY activities may expose themselves to asbestos dust. In the UK use of Chrysotile asbestos was banned at the end of 1999. Brown and blue asbestos was banned in the UK around 1985. Buildings built or renovated prior to these dates may contain asbestos materials.

Environmental exposures

Incidence of mesothelioma had been found to be higher in populations living near naturally occurring asbestos. For example, in Cappadocia, Turkey, an unprecedented mesothelioma epidemic caused 50% of all deaths in three small villages. Initially, this was attributed to erionite, however, recently, it has been shown that erionite causes mesothelioma mostly in families with a genetic predisposition.

Treatment for Mesothelioma

2008-11-07T02:24:00.000-08:00

Treatment of malignant mesothelioma using conventional therapies has not proved successful and patients have a median survival time of 6 - 12 months after presentation[citation needed]. The clinical behaviour of the malignancy is affected by several factors including the continuous mesothelial surface of the pleural cavity which favours local metastasis via exfoliated cells, invasion to underlying tissue and other organs within the pleural cavity, and the extremely long latency period between asbestos exposure and development of the disease.

Surgery

Surgery, either by itself or used in combination with pre- and post-operative adjuvant therapies, has proved disappointing. A pleurectomy/decortication is the most common surgery, in which the lining of the chest is removed. Less common is an extrapleural pneumonectomy (EPP), in which the lung, lining of the inside of the chest, the hemi-diaphragm and the pericardium are removed.

Radiation

For patients with localized disease, and who can tolerate a radical surgery, radiation is often given post-operatively as a consolidative treatment. The entire hemi-thorax is treated with radiation therapy, often given simultaneously with chemotherapy. This approach of using surgery followed by radiation with chemotherapy has been pioneered by the thoracic oncology team at Brigham & Women's Hospital in Boston.[12] Delivering radiation and chemotherapy after a radical surgery has led to extended life expectancy in selected patient populations with some patients surviving more than 5 years. As part of a curative approach to mesothelioma, radiotherapy is also commonly applied to the sites of chest drain insertion, in order to prevent growth of the tumor along the track in the chest wall.

Although mesothelioma is generally resistant to curative treatment with radiotherapy alone, palliative treatment regimens are sometimes used to relieve symptoms arising from tumor growth, such as obstruction of a major blood vessel. Radiation therapy when given alone with curative intent has never been shown to improve survival from mesothelioma. The necessary radiation dose to treat mesothelioma that has not been surgically removed would be very toxic.

Chemotherapy

In February 2004, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved pemetrexed (brand name Alimta) for treatment of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Pemetrexed is given in combination with cisplatin. Folic acid is also used to reduce the side-effects of pemetrexed.

Immunotherapy

Treatment regimens involving immunotherapy have yielded variable results. For example, intrapleural inoculation of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) in an attempt to boost the immune response, was found to be of no benefit to the patient (while it may benefit patients with bladder cancer). Mesothelioma cells proved susceptible to in vitro lysis by LAK cells following activation by interleukin-2 (IL-2), but patients undergoing this particular therapy experienced major side effects. Indeed, this trial was suspended in view of the unacceptably high levels of IL-2 toxicity and the severity of side effects such as fever and cachexia. Nonetheless, other trials involving interferon alpha have proved more encouraging with 20% of patients experiencing a greater than 50% reduction in tumor mass combined with minimal side effects.

Heated Intraoperative Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy

A procedure known as heated intraoperative intraperitoneal chemotherapy was developed by Paul Sugarbaker at the Washington Cancer Institute.[13] The surgeon removes as much of the tumor as possible followed by the direct administration of a chemotherapy agent, heated to between 40 and 48°C, in the abdomen. The fluid is perfused for 60 to 120 minutes and then drained.

This technique permits the administration of high concentrations of selected drugs into the abdominal and pelvic surfaces. Heating the chemotherapy treatment increases the penetration of the drugs into tissues. Also, heating itself damages the malignant cells more than the normal cells.

Notable people who died from mesothelioma

2008-11-07T02:23:00.002-08:00

Mesothelioma, though rare, has had a number of notable patients. Hamilton Jordan, Chief of Staff for President Jimmy Carter and life long cancer activist, died in 2008. Australian anti-racism activist Bob Bellear died in 2005. British science fiction writer Michael G. Coney, responsible for nearly 100 works also died in 2005. American film and television actor Paul Gleason, perhaps best known for his portrayal of Principal Richard Vernon in the 1985 film The Breakfast Club, died in 2006. Mickie Most, an English record producer, died of mesothelioma in 2003. Paul Rudolph, an American architect known for his cubist building designs, died in 1997.

Bernie Banton was an Australian workers' rights activist, who fought a long battle for compensation from James Hardie after he contracted mesothelioma after working for that company. He claimed James Hardie knew of the dangers of asbestos before he began work with the substance making insulation for power stations. Mesothelioma eventually took his life along with his brothers and hundreds of James Hardie workers. James Hardie made an undisclosed settlement with Banton only when his mesothelioma had reached its final stages and he was expected to have no more than 48hrs to live. Australian Prime Minister-elect Kevin Rudd mentioned Banton's extended struggle in his acceptance speech after winning the 2007 Australian Federal Election.

Steve McQueen was diagnosed with peritoneal mesothelioma on December 22, 1979. He was not offered surgery or chemotherapy because doctors felt the cancer was too advanced. McQueen sought alternative treatments from clinics in Mexico. He died of a heart attack on November 7, 1980, in Juárez, Mexico, following cancer surgery. He may have been exposed to asbestos while serving with the U.S. Marines as a young adult—asbestos was then commonly used to insulate ships' piping—or from its use as an insulating material in car racing suits. (It is also reported that he worked in a shipyard during World War II, where he might have been exposed to asbestos.[citation needed]

United States Congressman Bruce Vento died of mesothelioma in 2000. The Bruce Vento Hopebuilder is awarded yearly by his wife at the MARF Symposium to persons or organizations who have done the most to support mesothelioma research and advocacy.

After a long period of untreated illness and pain, rock and roll musician and songwriter Warren Zevon was diagnosed with inoperable mesothelioma in the fall of 2002. Refusing treatments he believed might incapacitate him, Zevon focused his energies on recording his final album The Wind including the song "Keep Me in Your Heart," which speaks of his failing breath. Zevon died at his home in Los Angeles, California, on September 7, 2003.

Christie Hennessy, the influential Irish singer-songwriter, died of mesothelioma in 2007, and had stridently refused to accept the prognosis in the weeks before his death.His mesothelioma has been attributed to his younger years spent working on building sites in London.

Bob Miner, one of the founders of Software Development Labs, the forerunner of Oracle Corporation died of mesothelioma in 1994.

Scottish Labour MP John William MacDougall died of mesothelioma on August 13th, 2008, after fighting the disease of two years..

Canberra journalist and news presenter, Peter Leonard also succumbed to the condition on 23 September 2008.

Terrence McCann Olympic gold medalist and longtime Executive Director of Toastmasters, died of mesothelioma on June 7, 2006 at his home in Dana Point, California.

Legal History

2008-11-07T02:23:00.001-08:00

The first lawsuit against asbestos manufacturers was brought in 1929. The parties settled that lawsuit, and as part of the agreement, the attorneys agreed not to pursue further cases. It was not until 1960 that an article published by Wagner et al first officially established mesothelioma as a disease arising from exposure to crocidolite asbestos.[22] The article referred to over 30 case studies of people who had suffered from mesothelioma in South Africa. Some exposures were transient and some were mine workers. In 1962 McNulty reported the first diagnosed case of malignant mesothelioma in an Australian asbestos worker.[23] The worker had worked in the mill at the asbestos mine in Wittenoom from 1948 to 1950.

In the town of Wittenoom, asbestos-containing mine waste was used to cover schoolyards and playgrounds. In 1965 an article in the British Journal of Industrial Medicine established that people who lived in the neighbourhoods of asbestos factories and mines, but did not work in them, had contracted mesothelioma.

Despite proof that the dust associated with asbestos mining and milling causes asbestos related disease, mining began at Wittenoom in 1943 and continued until 1966. In 1974 the first public warnings of the dangers of blue asbestos were published in a cover story called "Is this Killer in Your Home?" in Australia's Bulletin magazine. In 1978 the Western Australian Government decided to phase out the town of Wittenoom, following the publication of a Health Dept. booklet, "The Health Hazard at Wittenoom", containing the results of air sampling and an appraisal of worldwide medical information.

By 1979 the first writs for negligence related to Wittenoom were issued against CSR and its subsidiary ABA, and the Asbestos Diseases Society was formed to represent the Wittenoom victims.

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2008-10-01T02:54:00.000-07:00

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Dhoni gets Khel Ratna Award

2008-09-25T07:47:00.000-07:00

THE RAJIV Gandhi Khel Ratna award instituted in the year 1991-1992, recognises sporting talent. The award along with the Dronacharya award is given on the National Sports Day every year, which is incidentally the birthday of former Indian hockey legend Dhyan Chand. It is definitely the highest honour that can be given to a sportsperson in India and for Mahendra Singh Dhoni to get this at such a young age is definitely a huge achievement.

Dhoni has had a dream journey since he made his cricketing debut. After announcing his arrival in cricket with his flamboyant stroke play, this young man went on to capture the hearts of millions of cricket fans in India. The small town boy from Ranchi went on to lead India to its first 20-20 World Cup triumph since the Prudential Cup in 1983.

Dhoni represents the Indian youth of today- flamboyant, aggressive and confidant. He loves bikes and cars, still wakes up to drink milk in the morning and as a Pepsi commercial says was never good in studies. But the transition took place once he was entrusted with a job of responsibility. Since Dhoni has become the captain of the ODI and the 20-20 side of India, he has gone from strength to strength and achieved greater heights. From being a young keeper batsman in world cricket he has gone on to become one of the most shrewd and dependable captains of today. His relaxed approach behind the stumps, instilling confidence in all his players and his positive attitude has won him the respect of all his teammates and former cricketers.

The noticeable difference in Dhoni since his debut has been the change in his batting approach. From being a dasher in the early part of his career to the finisher of the innings, he has succeeded in both. The highlight of his career would definitely be the 20-20 World Cup win in Johannesburg beating Pakistan. It was the perfect gift for a billion plus cricket crazy nation and made up for the World Cup debacle in the Caribbean islands.

Dhoni has become the poster boy of cricket in India and it is only fitting that he got the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award- an award that has gone to sportsmen who have had tremendous achievements in the international sector. Sachin Tendulkar is the only cricketer to have been awarded with this recognition. The other men who have been given this honour include Vishwanathan Anand, Geet Sethi, Cdr. Homi D. Motivala and Lt. Cdr. P.K.Garg(Yachting), Karnam Malleshwari, Leander Paes and Nameirakpam Kunjarani (Joint), Jyotirmoyee Sikdar, Dhanraj Pillay, Pullela Gopichand, Abhinav Bindra, Anjali Ved Pathak Bhagwat and K M Beenamol, Anju Bobby George, Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore, Pankaj Advani and Manavjit Singh Sandhu.

Dhoni also represents the dreams and the aspirations of the small town people. Players from the major cities and towns had a strong hold over cricket, but this generation is producing players, who are coming from small places like Ranchi, Baroda, Rae Bareli. Dhoni has realised the dreams of many such youngsters who thought that it would not be possible.

Dhoni epitomises the aspirations of millions of young cricketers in India today. He has shown that apart from having the talent he also has the cricketing acumen to make him a successful cricketer. As long as we have a cricketer like Dhoni as captain of the side, you can be rest assured that Indian cricket is in safe hands. He has emerged as one of the greatest sportspersons of this country.

PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #7

2008-08-09T11:01:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Illuminated Olympic rings take center stage amid a sea of spectators during the three-hour plus opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games.

Held in the iconic National Stadium—also known as the ''Bird's Nest''—,the much-anticipated opening ceremony drew over cheering crowd of over 91,000.

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #6

2008-08-09T10:57:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—A martial artist displays her skills during the opening ceremonies for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing's National Stadium, also called the Bird's Nest.

Many styles of martial arts are believed to have originated in China. Zhang Yimou, the choreographer for the Olympics ceremony, is internationally famous for directing the blockbuster martial-arts films Hero (2002) and House of Flying Daggers (2004).

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #5

2008-08-09T10:53:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Robed in vibrant blue, performers at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games evoke China's maritime history with oars assembled to form pictures of Ming dynasty treasure ships.

Billion's of people around the world watched the opening ceremony, directed by Chinese filmmaker Zhang Yimou, on television.

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #4

2008-08-09T10:50:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Traditionally dressed dancers perform at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games opening ceremony.

The show, staged at the city's new national stadium, nicknamed the Bird's Nest, included more than 15,000 performers and illustrated China's history from ancient times to today.

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #3

2008-08-09T10:24:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Against a blurry background and flashing lights, a performer robed in traditional garments gazes into the immense crowd attending the opening ceremony at Beijing's National Stadium.

The dazzling ceremony highlighted Chinese art, architecture, and imperial power, while also emphasizing the Olympic and Confucian ideal of harmony.

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #2

2008-08-09T10:17:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Moving in perfect harmony, red-costumed dancers perform on intricately decorated floor's during the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games.

The complex choreography of the show—intended to showcase achievements of Chinese culture and history—took nearly seven years to plan and cost around $40 billion U.S. dollars, BBC News reported.

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PHOTOS: Olympics Opening Ceremony Bursts With Color #1

2008-08-09T10:00:00.000-07:00

Beijing, China, August 8, 2008—Fireworks light up the sky over the Beijing National Stadium—also known as the Bird's Nest—during the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.

China kicked off the 29th Olympic Games with a colorful celebration of its ancient history and modern might. The event—which drew crowds of around 91,000—featured a 50-minute spectacle with 15,000 performers, an array of fireworks, and ancient drum playing, the Agence France-Presse news service reported.

Over the next 16 days, approximately 10,000 Olympic athletes representing 205 countries will compete in events ranging from archery to fencing to sailing.

In anticipation of hot, smog-choked Beijing, many athletes engaged in special training techniques to keep on top of their game.

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Roman "Curse Tablet" Discovered in England

2008-08-09T09:40:00.000-07:00

Archaeologists in Leicester, England, have recently uncovered a treasure trove of Roman and medieval artifacts, including a 1,700-year-old Roman "curse tablet."

Curse tablets were metal scrolls on which ancient Romans wrote spells to exact revenge for misdeeds, often thefts of money, clothing, or animals.

Such tablets have been discovered previously in Britain, often near ancient Roman temple sites, but this is the first one to be found in Leicester.

The Leicester tablet, which was uncovered near the ruins of a large Roman townhouse dating from the second century A.D., was found unrolled. Curse tablets were typically rolled up and nailed to posts inside temples or shrines.

The newfound tablet appears to have been written by, or on behalf of, a man named Servandus, whose cloak had been stolen.

The writer inscribed a curse into a sheet of lead, asking the god Maglus to destroy the thief.

Measuring around 8 inches (20 centimeters) long and 3 inches (7 centimeters) wide, the tablet reads:

"To the god Maglus, I give the wrongdoer who stole the cloak of Servandus. Silvester, Roimandus … that he destroy him before the ninth day, the person who stole the cloak of Servandus …" A list of the names of 18 or 19 suspects follows.

Richard Buckley, co-director of the University of Leicester Archaeological Services, which is conducting the excavation, said the discovery provides crucial clues about life in Roman Britain. The names on the lead sheet are of particular interest, he noted.

"Some of [the names] are Celtic, and some are Roman. It helps us to understand the cultural makeup of the population," he said.

The tablets are thought to have been issued by ordinary people, rather than the wealthy, Buckley added, which helps explain why a missing garment called for action from the gods.

"If a cloak is all that you have, then it is pretty important," he said.

The excavations are part of a major dig involving a team of 60 archaeologists from the University of Leicester.

Over the last three years nearly 10 percent of the city center has been excavated prior to the construction of new commercial and residential development.

The dig has produced a wealth of artifacts from the period when the Roman Empire ruled Britain, from about A.D. 43 to 410.

In addition to Servandus' curse tablet, the Roman townhouse excavation has produced another curse tablet that has yet to be translated, along with thousands of shards of pottery, Roman weighing scales, coins, brooches, gaming pieces, animal bone, and hairpins.

At other sites in the city the archaeologists have uncovered medieval churches dating from the 11th to the 16th centuries, as well as graveyards with more than 1,600 burial sites.

The archaeologists also found a medieval street frontage of four properties, one of which had evidence of a brewery in its backyard.

Iron Age Warrior with Roman Links Found in U.K.

2008-08-09T09:28:00.000-07:00

The grave of an ancient British warrior with tantalizing Roman connections has been unearthed in southern England, archaeologists say.

The 2,000-year-old skeleton of the tribal king or nobleman was found buried with military trappings, including a bronze helmet and an ornate shield both of a style previously unknown in Britain, experts say

The Iron Age man, who died in his 30s, was discovered in June at the site of a new housing development in North Bersted on England's southeastern coast.

"What we've found is of national and international importance," said dig team member Mark Taylor, senior archaeologist at West Sussex County Council.

Unique Discoveries

Pottery—including three large jars placed at the foot of the grave—date the site to between A.D. 40 and A.D. 60, the team said.

A bronze shield boss was found along with semicircular latticework plates that are thought to have decorated the shield.

The ornate artwork is unique "certainly in the U.K. and Europe, as far as we know," Taylor said.

The scroll patterning most closely resembles that of mainland Europe's La Tène culture, named after a late Iron Age site in Switzerland, Taylor noted.

The domed helmet likely had a similar origin, according to John Creighton, an archaeologist from the University of Reading.

Creighton, who specializes in the late Iron Age period, said it appears to be a Celtic-style Mannheim helmet—the first one ever found in Britain.

A greater mystery is a large, iron-framed structure that was placed on top of the warrior's body.

The study team suspects the object was a household item intended for use in the afterlife rather than the remains of a coffin.

"My hunch is that it was some usable part of the domestic riches that went into the grave with this chap," Taylor said.

The corroded object may have been a "fire dog," which was used to burn wood inside the home, he suggested.

Roman Alliances

Experts say the burial may provide important new evidence of Roman influence in the region before the Roman conquest of England in A.D. 43.

Alliances forged by the Romans with southern tribal kings after Julius Caesar (see photo) arrived in 55 B.C. are thought to have involved taking hostages.

"One of the tempting and really exciting prospects is that the find might fulfill the theory that the sons of nobility may have been sent to Rome or sent abroad to undertake military training or to complete their education," team member Taylor said.

"It was all part of the empire-building process of that time to secure loyal, high-status client kings in the countries that were to become part of the Roman Empire."

Creighton, of the University of Reading, says the newly discovered grave adds to recent "astonishing finds of metalwork demonstrating a close link between Britain and the Roman world in the years before the conquest."

(Related: "Roman 'Curse Tablet' Discovered in England")

Astonishing Finds

Scientific analysis of the warrior may reveal more evidence of Roman links, experts say.

"Hopefully, in six months … we'll have a lot more information," Taylor said.

For example, isotope analysis will reveal the chemical signature of the water the warrior drank, which could show if he lived overseas in his youth.

aThe tests may similarly indicate his diet, according to Steve Ford, director of Thames Valley Archaeological Services, which led the excavation.

"We might also find out what killed him—whether there had been any traumas such as broken bones or knife wounds," Ford said.

Ancient Olympics Mixed Naked Sports, Pagan Partying

2008-08-08T07:51:00.000-07:00

This year the Olympic Games return to their birthplace in Greece. But much has changed since the first games were held there almost three millennia The True Story of the Ancient Games, to hear what the first Olympics were really like.ago.

The Olympic Games were held every four years from 776 B.C. to A.D. 394, making them the longest-running recurring event in antiquity. What was the secret of the games' longevity?

It was the sheer spectacle of it. Sports [were] one part of a grand, all-consuming extravaganza. It was first and foremost a religious event, held on the most sacred spot in the ancient world. It had this incredible aura of tradition and sanctity.

Today's Olympics is a vast, secular event, but it doesn't have the religious element of the ancient Olympics, where sacrifices and rituals would take up as much time as the sports. And there were all these peripheral things that came with the festival: the artistic happenings, new writers, new painters, new sculptors. There were fire-eaters, palm readers, and prostitutes.

This was the total pagan entertainment package.

Today the Olympics are celebrated for their noble ideals of competition, friendship and culture. Do we find those ideals in the ancient games?

We have a very sentimental attitude toward the ancient games. But this romanticized image with gentlemanly behavior and chivalry was largely devised by Victorian scholars in the 19th century.

Perhaps the most inspiring ancient ideal was the moratorium on war during the games, a sacred truce that allowed travelers to safely get to the games. But the ancient Greeks were not as idealistic as to try to stop all wars. They just didn't want anything that interfered with the operation of the games. If you wanted to have a war in Sicily, the truce wouldn't stop you at all.

There were times when the truce fell apart. In 364 B.C. the regular organizers lost control of the games, because they had become involved in politics. To get revenge, they attacked the games' new organizers in the middle of a wrestling match. They had this pitched battle going on inside the sanctuary, with archers up on the temples.

The fans took it in stride. They stopped watching the wrestling match and instead watched the battle, applauding as if these were opposing teams at a sports match.

What is the origin of the games?

This has been lost in the mist of time. The ancient Greeks had many mythological reasons for why they were held, but no one knows for sure.

How did the athletes prepare themselves for the Games?

They had to appear at the [nearby] city of Elis a month before the games. This was the first Olympic village. There, they had to submit to a grueling training regime designed to weed out those who weren't up to Olympic standards.

While there was no shame in dropping out before the games, athletes who dropped out during the actual games were humiliated. There is a story of one huge wrestler showing up for training. As soon as he took his clothes off, all the other athletes dropped out because they all knew they couldn't beat this guy.

Were the athletes on any special diets?

Some of the dietary fads in antiquity were probably no more logical than what we see today. The traditional diets were very simple: olives, bread, feta cheese, and a reasonable amount of meat. But one wrestler went on an all-fig diet. Doctors would tell athletes they shouldn't eat pork that had been raised on certain berries.

There were a lot of performance-enhancing potions floating around. Lizard's flesh, eaten a certain way, for example, became magic.

Why did the athletes compete in the nude?

The truth is that no one knows. According to one story, it began when a runner lost his loincloth and tripped on it. Everyone took off his loincloth after that. But ancient historians have traced it back to initiation rites—young men walking around naked and sort of entering manhood.

We know how fundamental nudity was to Greek culture. It really appealed to the exhibitionism and the vanity of the Greeks. Only barbarians were afraid to show their bodies. The nude athletes would parade like peacocks up and down the stadium. Poets would write in a shaky hand these wonderful odes to the bodies of the young men, their skin the color of fired clay.

But other cultures, like the Persians and the Egyptians, looked at these Greek men oiling one another down and writhing in the mud, and found it very strange. They believed it promoted sexual degeneracy.

Was homosexuality accepted?

The Greeks would not have understood the word. Sexual acts between two grown men would have been considered entirely shocking. But pederasty was inherent to the Greek gymnasium culture, and you had all these men mentoring pre-pubescent boys. It was socially accepted and considered part of a boy's education, but it wasn't discussed openly.

Of course, women did not compete in the Olympics.

That's right. Married [women] weren't even allowed into the stands, though young women and virgins were allowed in. Fathers brought their daughters to the games hoping they would get married to one of the champions.

Prostitution was rampant. Women were brought in from all over the Mediterranean. It's been said that a prostitute could make as much as money in five days during the Olympics as she would in the rest of the year.

But there was a special sporting event for women.

Yes, it was kind of a second string of the festival. The [women's] games were held at Olympia and dedicated to Zeus's consort Hera. The young women ran in short tunics with their right breast exposed as an homage to the Amazon warrior women, a race of female super warriors that was believed to have cauterized their right breast so as not to impede their javelin throwing.

In Sparta there were women wrestling. There's a great story of a Roman senator traveling from afar to see these Spartan women, who were legendarily beautiful and muscular. He got so excited that he jumped in the ring. We don't have any records of whether he won or lost, but we have to assume that he enjoyed himself.

How popular were the male athletes?

They were as close as you could get to being a demigod in the mortal world. You would gain incredible prestige and wealth from an Olympic victory. You never had to work again.

Officially, the winner was given an olive wreath. But your home city would give you piles of money, honors like front seats at the theater, lifetime pensions, vats of olive oil, maybe even priesthood. Your name would be passed down from generation to generation. You became part of the very fabric of history.

Why did this sports mania take place in Greece and not elsewhere?

For two reasons, I think. First, Greece has this gorgeous environment. It was a land of the great outdoors, with beautiful Mediterranean weather. You could go swimming or hiking in the mountains. You have to have decent weather if you're going to be running around naked all day.

That converges with this incredible competitiveness that the Greeks have. For whatever reason, the Greeks would just compete about everything. There are hilarious stories of travelers meeting in inns and having eating races. It was inevitable that they would have these formal sporting events.

But sports were just one part of what you've called the Woodstock of antiquity. What was it like for the spectators?

To be a spectator at the Olympic Games was an incredibly uncomfortable experience. It makes modern sports fans seem like a pretty flaky bunch. First of all, if you came from Athens, you had to walk 210 miles [340 kilometers] to get to the site.

Olympia is in the middle of nowhere. It's a beautiful place, very idyllic. But it's basically a collection of three temples and a running track, with one inn reserved for the wealthy.

The organizers had it pretty easy in ancient times. They only had to chase a few sheep and cattle off the running track and temples. Everyone just turned up and had to look after himself. If you're rich, you put up a tent and you had servants. But the rank-and-file spectators plunked down anywhere.

In the high summer it was incredibly hot. The two rivers that converge at Olympia dried up. Nobody could wash. There was no drinking water, and people collapsed from heat stroke.

There was no sanitation, so the odors were quite pungent. Once you got into the stadium, there were no seats, only grassy banks. The word stadium comes from the Greek stadion, which means "a place to stand." But it was an incredible atmosphere with an amazing sense of tradition. People were standing on the very hill where Zeus wrestled his father [according to legend].

How many people showed up?

There were an estimated 40,000 spectators, and probably as many hangers-on, like vendors, writers, artists, prostitutes, and their shepherds.

What about some of the most famous names of the time?

Plato was a great wrestling fan. He showed up at the games incognito and stayed in makeshift barracks. He used to invite people to come and see him in Athens after the games. They would go there and realize he was the most famous man in Greece. Sophocles was a great handball fan.

Almost all Greek intellectuals were sports fans, and the games [were] also a great literary event. Herodotus debuted his famous history at the Olympics.

Did the games make any money?

The local farmers and producers certainly made a lot of money, but not the organizers. They didn't charge for entrance. They were aristocrats who weren't in it for the money but for the prestige of organizing the most important events in ancient Greece.

There must have been a lot of boozing.

Yes, you find the first sports bars in ancient Greece. Normally the Greeks didn't get terribly drunk. But this was like five days of living it up. People didn't sleep much at all. Students would organize these symposia that turned into drunken orgies.

Despite this debauchery, the Games had a spiritually profound meaning.

The sanctuary of Zeus was the most sacred place in the ancient world. The gods paid as much attention to the sports results as mortals. Athletes offered sacrifices nonstop to the gods, and the gods were even meant to have competed in the Olympics at an early stage.

They didn't have some of the things that we associate with the games today, like the torch relay.

The torch thing was really devised for the 1936 Nazi games. Hitler was fascinated with the ancient Greek world. He had all these theories that Spartans were this Aryan super race. Carl Diem, a sidekick of his, came up with this idea of carrying the torch from Olympia to Berlin.

But the torch and the opening ceremony transcended those rather sordid origins, and it became this wonderful tradition.

What about the Olympic flame?

Every sanctuary had its eternal flame. As a symbol, fire has been an important part of ancient Greek culture.

What was the opening ceremony like?

It was just as spectacular as it is today, the athletes filing into the temple, where they had to give their oath before a terrifying statue of Zeus wielding these thunderbolts. They had to swear over this bloody slice of boar's flesh that they would obey the rules of the game and use no unfair means to gain victory.

The judges were concerned that athletes would use performance-enhancing potions. But even more popular was placing curses on your opponents. There are stories of athletes veering off course [or] not being able to make it out of the starting blocks.

Emperor Nero comes to the Games and wins the chariot race, even though he falls out of the chariot. That was the low ebb, really. Having said that, the Olympics were considered the cleanest of the athletic games.

Let's talk about the actual sports. The chariot race was perhaps the most eagerly anticipated event. Why?

It was the most aristocratic event. It was also very violent. It was the Indianapolis 500 of antiquity. If you've seen the Charlton Heston version of Ben Hur, it gives you a very good idea of the nail-biting tension that was invoked by this event.

It was very dangerous, with crashes between chariots and chariots veering off the course and into the audience. They would go 12 laps around the stadium.

The tight corners were the most dangerous part. There were usually 40 chariots in the race. In one race, with 21 chariots starting, only 1 finished. That gives you an idea of just how dangerous this race was.

Running was the oldest event, but what about the marathon?

The ancient games didn't actually have a marathon. The three-mile [five-kilometer] dolichos was the longest running event in the early ancient games.

The marathon is a Victorian invention, based on a story about the Battle of Marathon. A courier, Philippides, who fought in the battle, dashed from the battlefield to bring news of the Greek victory to Athens. Once there, he collapsed and died.

The 26.3-mile [42.3-kilometer] distance from Marathon to Athens is the length of the modern marathon races around the world.

Even these three-mile [five-kilometer] races must have been pretty tough. Athletes certainly didn't have scientifically designed Nikes and Reeboks at the time.

I ran in Olympia, and it's definitely hard on your feet. At the games they put a layer of sand over the running track to soften it, but it was still very rough. The ancient Greeks just had harder feet. When you're running around with no shoes all your life, they become like a hobbit's, probably.

One unusual thing was that there was no oval running track. Everyone was running back and forth on this straight running track that looks like an airstrip. They had turning posts at the ends. You would go around with a group, which offered plenty of opportunities to accidentally trip people.

Today the decathlon is considered one of the most prestigious events and a true test of an athlete's greatness. How was the pentathlon looked upon in ancient Greece?

They started out with the discus, which was followed by the long jump, which was considered the most aesthetically pleasing, which was a big deal to the Greeks. Athletes jumped from a standing start, and it was done to flute music. Then there was the javelin event, followed by a sprint and a wrestling match.

The guys who were best at the pentathlon wouldn't be the best at the specialty events, but people would admire their versatility and great skill.

Some of the other events were very violent.

The combat events on the fourth day were very popular with the rank and file. The wrestling was similar to today's Greco-Roman wrestling. But the boxing was more exotic. Guys pummeled each other to the head using their fists with leather thongs wrapped around them. Body blows were actually forbidden. There were no rounds and no weight restrictions.

There are vivid tales of people's faces being pummeled to a bloody pulp. One boxer didn't want to give his opponent the satisfaction of knocking out his teeth, so he swallowed them all.

The third combat sport, the pankretion, is the most exotic to us. The only thing banned was eye gouging. Anything else goes. Bone breaking was common. One guy became known as "Mr. Digits," because he would break his opponent's fingers. Strangulation was encouraged.

To win, the other person had to submit, so you really had to knock the person out. And you're doing this in the nude, so people are going for the groin. It would have been an extremely uncomfortable event.

There were no team sports.

No, the Greeks were very individualistic. Athletes represented themselves first and their city-state second. There was no second place in the ancient games, no Victorian ideals of a handshake and gentlemanly slap on the back for a game well played. If you lost, you'd scamper home through the back streets. Your mother wouldn't even talk to you.

How would these athletes have performed against today's elite?

That's hard to say, because the Greeks didn't share our obsession with keeping records. They didn't have stopwatches. It was very much the winner of the moment.

Remember, the gene pool was much smaller in ancient Greece, a few million people. Now the athletes are chosen from billions of people around the world. I think the ancient Greeks would probably have a pretty rough time. Maybe they'd do well in events like wrestling. God knows they knew a few tricks.

Why did the ancient games end in A.D. 394?

They end when the Christian emperor Theodosius I bans all pagan festivals. The Christians hated the Olympic Games—the celebration of the human body, these guys running around naked, drinking, fornicating, the whole bit.

The end came as an incredible shock to the psyche of the ancient Greeks. They assumed quite logically that the games would go on forever.

Ancient Olympic Chariot Racetrack Located?

2008-08-08T07:46:00.000-07:00

As the Beijing Olympics draw near, archaeologists are reporting the discovery of the long-lost chariot race track at the Greek birthplace of the games.

German researchers claim to have identified the hippodrome at Olympia, in Western Greece, some 1,600 years after the historic sports venue disappeared under river mud.

The ancient circuit, where Olympic competitors raced in chariots or on horseback, was found in May by a team including Norbert Müller of Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany.

Müller, a sports historian, declared the find "an archaeological sensation."

Researchers located the site using geomagnetic technology, a method that allows archaeologists to trace ancient structural features hidden beneath the soil.

Part of the oblong track's distinctive outline was documented some seven feet (two meters) beneath fields and olive groves and extended almost 656 feet (200 meters) in length.

East of the sanctuary of the Greek god Zeus, the track ran parallel to the stadium at Olympia where athletes performed, according to Müller and co-researcher Christian Wacker of the German Sports and Olympic Museum in Köln (Cologne), Germany.

Outlines of walls or ramparts were highlighted, "which can be most clearly connected with the ancient hippodrome," the researchers said in a statement.

The findings provide the "first clear indications" of the hippodrome's location, they added.

Ancient Mystery

The exact position of the hippodrome has long been a mystery, even though archaeologists have been excavating at Olympia since 1875.

Situated on the floodplain of the Alfeiós River, the site was buried under silt some 1,600 years ago.

Pausanias, a second-century travel writer, left a detailed account of the track, including its V-shaped starting stalls and their elaborate opening mechanism, as well as its sharp turns, marker posts, and altars.

A circle of stones measuring about 33 feet (10 meters) in diameter also was revealed by the soil survey, which may represent one of the structures Pausanias referred to, Müller said.

Slow Down

The German Archaeological Institute at Athens, which was also involved in the research, is more cautious about the findings.

Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier, the institute's director, cautioned that a direct link has not yet been identified between the recently discovered outlines and the ancient racecourse.

"It could be the hippodrome but I don't think we can say that the hippodrome is 'discovered,'" Niemeier said. "This really has to be confirmed by test excavations and so on."

But the research site is in the "right area" for the hippodrome based on historical evidence, Niemeier said.

Any excavations would first require the permission of Greek authorities, he added.

Hard to Find

Richard Woff of the British Museum in London described the difficulty of pinning down the hippodrome's precise location.

Woff, who isn't connected to the research, said the hippodrome's main structures were most likely its starting stalls and the central barrier that charioteers and riders raced around.

"Apart from that, there probably wasn't a lot to it," he said. "So not only was it buried by silt, there's also the fact that there wasn't much to bury."

The hippodrome events were the most prestigious at the ancient Games, which were under way by 776 B.C.

"The main reason for this was that only the wealthiest people could afford to enter the chariot and horse races," Woff said. "Horses were very much a status symbol in ancient Greece."

While paid professionals would have ridden the horses and chariots, the winning prize went to the owner, he said.

This gave women their only opportunity of claiming an Olympic title since they were barred from either competing in or watching the Games.

"There's evidence a woman did win at the Olympics by doing that," Woff said.

Meanwhile the chariot drivers, who wore long white tunics, are thought to have been the only competitors at Olympia who didn't perform in the nude.

Tyrannosaurus Rex

2008-08-08T07:30:00.000-07:00

Tyrannosaurus Rex Profile

Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs that ever lived. Everything about this ferocious predator, from its thick, heavy skull to its 4-foot-long (1.2-meter-long) jaw, was designed for maximum bone-crushing action.

Fossil evidence shows that Tyrannosaurus was about 40 feet (12 meters) long and about 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6 meters) tall. Its strong thighs and long, powerful tail helped it move quickly, and its massive 5-foot-long (1.5-meter-long) skull could bore into prey.

T. rex's serrated, conical teeth were most likely used to pierce and grip flesh, which it then ripped away with its brawny neck muscles. Its two-fingered forearms could probably seize prey, but they were too short to reach its mouth.

Scientists believe this powerful predator could eat up to 500 pounds (230 kilograms) of meat in one bite. Fossils of T. rex prey, including Triceratops and Edmontosaurus, suggest T. rex crushed and broke bones as it ate, and broken bones have been found in its dung.

Tyrannosaurus rex lived in forested river valleys in North America during the late Cretaceous period. It became extinct about 65 million years ago in the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction.

Fast Facts

Type: Prehistoric
Diet: Carnivore
Size: 40 ft (12 m) long; 15 to 20 ft (4.6 to 6 m) tall
Did you know? Tyrannosaurus means "tyrant lizard."
Protection status: Extinct
Size relative to a bus:

Great White Shark

2008-08-08T07:14:00.000-07:00

Great White Shark Profile

The legendary great white shark is far more fearsome in our imaginations than in reality. As scientific research on these elusive predators increases, their image as mindless killing machines is beginning to fade.

Of the 100-plus annual shark attacks worldwide, fully one-third to one-half are attributable to great whites. However, most of these are not fatal, and new research finds that great whites, who are naturally curious, are "sample biting" then releasing their victims rather than preying on humans. It's not a terribly comforting distinction, but it does indicate that humans are not actually on the great white's menu.

Great whites are the largest predatory fish on Earth. They grow to an average of 15 feet (4.6 meters) in length, though specimens exceeding 20 feet (6 meters) and weighing up to 5,000 pounds (2,268 kilograms) have been recorded.

They have slate-gray upper bodies to blend in with the rocky coastal sea floor, but get their name from their universally white underbellies. They are streamlined, torpedo-shaped swimmers with powerful tails that can propel them through the water at speeds of up to 15 miles (24 kilometers) per hour. They can even leave the water completely, breaching like whales when attacking prey from underneath.

Highly adapted predators, their mouths are lined with up to 3,000 serrated, triangular teeth arranged in several rows, and they have an exceptional sense of smell to detect prey. They even have organs that can sense the tiny electromagnetic fields generated by animals. Their main prey items include sea lions, seals, small toothed whales, and even sea turtles, and carrion.

Found in cool, coastal waters throughout the world, there is no reliable data on the great white's population. However, scientists agree that their number are decreasing precipitously due to overfishing and accidental catching in gill nets, among other factors, and they are listed as an endangered species.

Fast Facts

Type: Fish
Diet: Carnivore
Size: 15 ft (4.6 m) to more than 20 ft (6 m)
Weight: 5,000 lbs (2,268 kg) or more
Group name: School or shoal
Did you know? Great whites can detect one drop of blood in 25 gallons (100 liters) of water and can sense even tiny amounts of blood in the water up to 3 miles (5 kilometers) away.
Protection status: Endangered
Size relative to a bus:

Ancient Giant Shark Had Strongest Bite Ever, Model Says

2008-08-08T06:31:00.000-07:00

Prehistoric megalodon—literally "megatooth"—sharks had the most powerful bite of any creature that has ever lived, according to a new model.

Its bite was strong enough to crush an automobile and far exceeded that of the great white shark and even Tyrannosaurus rex.

Known mostly from the large teeth it left behind, Carcharodon megalodon first appeared in Earth's seas about 16 million years ago (in the Neogene period) and dined on giant prehistoric turtles and whales.

"Megalodon's killing strategy was to bite the tails and flippers off large whales, effectively taking out their propulsion systems," said study leader Stephen Wroe of the University of New South Wales in Australia.

The prehistoric shark may have grown to lengths of over 50 feet (16 meters) and weighed up to 30 times more than the largest great white.

"A great white is about the size of the clasper, or penis, of a male megalodon," said Peter Klimley a shark expert at the University of California at Davis, who was not involved with the current research.

"Could Have Crushed a Small Car"

Wroe and his colleagues extrapolated the bite force of megalodon from data they collected from great whites.

The team created a computer model of a great white's skull, jaw, and head muscles from images generated by a computerized tomography (CT) scanner.

They then ran "crash test" simulations with the model to reveal the stresses and strains it could withstand and the strength of its bite.

The team estimated a great white could generate a maximum bite force of about 4,000 pounds (1,800 kilograms).

Because megalodon was much bigger than a great white, it might have chomped down on prey with a force of between 24,000 to 40,000 pounds (10,900 to 18,100 kilograms), the researchers say.

"Of course it would probably have broken most of its teeth in the exercise."

For comparison, T. rex, one of the largest land carnivores of all time, had a bite force that has been estimated at only 6,834 pounds (3,100 kilograms).

Jaw Structure

Most of what is known about megalodon comes from the study of its teeth, which have features that suggest they were arranged in a broad mouth. And animals with broad mouths typically have short snouts.

Animals with short snouts, furthermore, generally have more leverage when they bite and generate more force in the up-and-down direction, scientists say.

Klimley, of the University of California, said megalodon's powerful bite is consistent with the theory that the ancient shark had a pug nose.

Chuck Ciampaglio, a paleontologist at Wright State University in Ohio, is more skeptical.

Megalodon was likely not a direct ancestor of great whites, Ciampaglio said, so it "may have quite a different skull and jaw structure."

Also, megalodon may have used fewer muscles to power its bite than the model predicts.

"As an animal becomes larger, much more of the animal's weight is consumed by support structures, not muscles," Ciampaglio said.

Climate

2008-08-08T05:17:00.000-07:00

One of the factors that influences climate is the angle of the sun's rays. In the tropics, between 23.5° N and 23.5° S, there is at least one time of year when the noontime sun is directly overhead and its rays hit at a direct angle. This produces a hot climate with relatively small temperature differences between summer and winter.

In the Arctic and Antarctic (north or south of 66.5° latitude), there are times of year when the sun is above the horizon 24 hours a day (a phenomenon known as midnight sun) and times when it never rises. Even in the summer, the sun is low enough for temperatures to be lower than in the tropics, but the seasonal changes are much greater than in equatorial regions. Interior Alaska has seen temperatures as high as 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius).

Farther from the Equator lie the temperate regions. These include the United States, Europe, China, and parts of Australia, South America, and southern Africa. They have the typical four seasons: winter, spring, summer, and fall.

Outside Influences

Climate is also controlled by wind, oceans, and mountains.

Winds bring moisture to land. North and south of the Equator the trade winds blow from the northeast and southeast, respectively. These winds converge in the tropics, forcing air to rise. This produces thunderstorms, humidity, and monsoons.

North and south of the trade winds, about 30° from the Equator, there is relatively little wind, and therefore little moisture blowing inland from the oceans. Also, dry air is sinking back to the surface, warming in the process. This is why many of the world's great desert regions—the Sahara, Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and chunks of Mexico—lie at the same latitude. A similar band of deserts lies to the south in Australia, South America, and southern Africa.

Mountains force wind to rise as it crosses over them. This cools the air, causing moisture to condense in clouds and rain. This produces a wet climate on the upwind side of the mountains and an arid "rain shadow" on the downwind side.

Oceans provide moisture that fuels rainstorms. They also buffer the temperature of coastal regions, regardless of latitude.

Climate Groups

In the early 1900s, climatologist Wladimir Köppen divided the world into five major climate groups.

Moist, tropical climates are hot and humid. Steppes and deserts are dry, with large temperature variations. Plentiful lakes, rivers, or nearby oceans give humid, midlatitude climates cool, damp winters, but they have hot, dry summers. Some of these climates are also called Mediterranean. Continental climates occur in the centers of large continents. Mountain ranges (or sheer distance) block off sources of moisture, creating dry regions with large seasonal variations in temperature. Much of southern Canada, Russia, and parts of central Asia would fall into this category. Cold, or polar, climates round out Köppen's list. A sixth region, high elevations, was later added to the classification system.

Malaria

2008-08-08T05:11:00.000-07:00

The disease chiefly affects lowland tropical regions, where conditions favor Anopheles mosquitoes, which carry the malaria parasite plasmodium. It's the blood-seeking females that inject these microscopic invaders, each bite acting like an infected hypodermic needle.

Of the four kinds of plasmodia, Plasmodium falciparum is by far the most dangerous, responsible for about half of all malaria cases and 95 percent of deaths.

The parasite has a complicated life cycle, which begins in the mosquito's gut before moving to the salivary glands, where it awaits transfer to the next host. Once in a human's bloodstream, the parasite lodges in the liver, burrowing into cells where it feasts and multiplies. After a week or two the plasmodia burst out—around 40,000 replications for each parasite that entered the body. Next they target red blood cells, this time repeatedly, until there are billions of parasites in circulation. If this cycle isn't checked, the body starts to fail, because with so many oxygen-carrying red cells being destroyed there are too few left to sustain vital organs. Meanwhile, all it takes for the parasite to pass on its grim legacy is for another mosquito to stop off for a meal.

No Vaccine

Almost two-thirds of humans infected live in sub-Saharan Africa, which also bears around 90 percent of the global malaria death toll. A child there dies from the disease about every 30 seconds. Elsewhere, countries worst affected are in southern Asia and Latin America.

Those most vulnerable are young children, who have yet to develop any resistance to the disease, and pregnant women who have reduced immunity. Signs of infection include flu-like symptoms such as fever, shivering, headache, and muscle ache. The P. falciparum parasite can lead to life-threatening conditions such as brain damage (cerebral malaria), severe anemia, and kidney failure. Survivors are often left with permanent neurological damage.

For centuries the only widely known malaria remedy was quinine, which came from the bark of the cinchona tree of Peru and Ecuador. Then, in the 1940s, a synthetic drug was created using the compound chloroquine. Around the same time, the insecticide known as DDT was developed. These twin weapons led to a worldwide assault on malaria, eradicating the disease in many areas, including the United States and southern Europe.

But malaria has made a major comeback since the 1970s, partly because DDT use was severely restricted after it was found to be harmful to certain wildlife, and because the plasmodium parasite started becoming resistant to anti-malaria drugs.

With more people now falling sick from malaria than ever before, the need to tackle it has never been so urgent. The top priority, health experts say, is finding a vaccine—seen as the only surefire way of beating the disease.

What Is Global Warming?

2008-08-08T05:04:00.000-07:00

We call the result global warming, but it is causing a set of changes to the Earth's climate, or long-term weather patterns, that varies from place to place. As the Earth spins each day, the new heat swirls with it, picking up moisture over the oceans, rising here, settling there. It's changing the rhythms of climate that all living things have come to rely upon.

What will we do to slow this warming? How will we cope with the changes we've already set into motion? While we struggle to figure it all out, the face of the Earth as we know it—coasts, forests, farms and snow-capped mountains—hangs in the balance.

Greenhouse effect

The "greenhouse effect" is the warming that happens when certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap heat. These gases let in light but keep heat from escaping, like the glass walls of a greenhouse.

First, sunlight shines onto the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed and then radiates back into the atmosphere as heat. In the atmosphere, “greenhouse” gases trap some of this heat, and the rest escapes into space. The more greenhouse gases are in the atmosphere, the more heat gets trapped.

Scientists have known about the greenhouse effect since 1824, when Joseph Fourier calculated that the Earth would be much colder if it had no atmosphere. This greenhouse effect is what keeps the Earth's climate livable. Without it, the Earth's surface would be an average of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit cooler. In 1895, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius discovered that humans could enhance the greenhouse effect by making carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. He kicked off 100 years of climate research that has given us a sophisticated understanding of global warming.

Levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) have gone up and down over the Earth's history, but they have been fairly constant for the past few thousand years. Global average temperatures have stayed fairly constant over that time as well, until recently. Through the burning of fossil fuels and other GHG emissions, humans are enhancing the greenhouse effect and warming Earth.

Scientists often use the term "climate change" instead of global warming. This is because as the Earth's average temperature climbs, winds and ocean currents move heat around the globe in ways that can cool some areas, warm others, and change the amount of rain and snow falling. As a result, the climate changes differently in different areas.

Aren't temperature changes natural?

The average global temperature and concentrations of carbon dioxide (one of the major greenhouse gases) have fluctuated on a cycle of hundreds of thousands of years as the Earth's position relative to the sun has varied. As a result, ice ages have come and gone.

However, for thousands of years now, emissions of GHGs to the atmosphere have been balanced out by GHGs that are naturally absorbed. As a result, GHG concentrations and temperature have been fairly stable. This stability has allowed human civilization to develop within a consistent climate.

Occasionally, other factors briefly influence global temperatures. Volcanic eruptions, for example, emit particles that temporarily cool the Earth's surface. But these have no lasting effect beyond a few years. Other cycles, such as El Niño, also work on fairly short and predictable cycles.

Now, humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by more than a third since the industrial revolution. Changes this large have historically taken thousands of years, but are now happening over the course of decades.

Why is this a concern?
The rapid rise in greenhouse gases is a problem because it is changing the climate faster than some living things may be able to adapt. Also, a new and more unpredictable climate poses unique challenges to all life.

Historically, Earth's climate has regularly shifted back and forth between temperatures like those we see today and temperatures cold enough that large sheets of ice covered much of North America and Europe. The difference between average global temperatures today and during those ice ages is only about 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit), and these swings happen slowly, over hundreds of thousands of years.

Now, with concentrations of greenhouse gases rising, Earth's remaining ice sheets (such as Greenland and Antarctica) are starting to melt too. The extra water could potentially raise sea levels significantly.

As the mercury rises, the climate can change in unexpected ways. In addition to sea levels rising, weather can become more extreme. This means more intense major storms, more rain followed by longer and drier droughts (a challenge for growing crops), changes in the ranges in which plants and animals can live, and loss of water supplies that have historically come from glaciers.

Scientists are already seeing some of these changes occurring more quickly than they had expected. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eleven of the twelve hottest years since thermometer readings became available occurred between 1995 and 2006.

Extreme Rains to Be Supercharged by Warming, Study Says

2008-08-08T04:46:00.000-07:00

Global warming could make extreme rains stronger and more frequent than previously forecast, a new study suggests.

Such a scenario could make floods fiercer, damage more crops, and worsen the spread of diseases such as malaria, scientists say.

Rainfall patterns are already shifting as Earth warms under a blanket of humanmade greenhouse gases, experts say.

Study co-author Richard P. Allan, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Reading in Berkshire, United Kingdom, said previous studies have shown that "wet regions are becoming wetter, and dry regions drier."

The study team analyzed satellite images of rainfall over tropical oceans over nearly two decades, from 1988 to 2004.

The researchers found that during El Niño years, which tend to be warmer, rain fell in heavier showers. An El Niño is a climate event where the flow of abnormally warm surface Pacific waters temporarily changes global weather patterns.

"This is something that climate models had predicted," Allan said. "But getting the data from observations is very important."

Many previous rainfall pattern studies have relied on measurements from rain gauges. Such gauges are sparsely distributed across land, Allan said, whereas satellites can see large areas as a whole.

Global Warming Forecast

Although our planet is warming overall, Earth's climate still varies between warmer and wetter El Niño years and cooler and drier La Niña years.

Looking at these changes in rainfall can give scientists a good estimate of what will happen with continued global warming, according to Allan and his co-author, Brian Soder of the University of Florida.

With continued global warming, the changes in Earth's rainfall patterns will be worse than previously forecast, Allan and Soder write.

"The models seem to underestimate the response in extreme rainfall with warming," Allan said.

For every 1.8 degree Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius) rise in global temperature, heavy rain showers became more common, with most intense category jumping 60 percent, says the study, which will be published tomorrow in the journal Science.

During the 20th century, Earth's average global temperature rose about 1.2 degrees Fahrenheit (0.7 degrees Celsius). But researchers predict that bump will be dwarfed by the warming to come.

The latest UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report predicts at least three times as much warming—about 3.2 to 7.1 degrees Fahrenheit (2 to 4 degrees Celsius)—by the end of the 21st century

The uptick could drive a big jump in intense rainfall events, Allan and Soden argue.

Human Impact

Warmer air can hold more moisture. "So if the air is more moist, you get more heavy rainfall," Allan noted, adding that such extreme weather takes a toll on people.

With intense rains, "you can get flash flooding, and heavy rainfall can destroy crops," he said. "Those are the most immediate impacts."

Coupled with rising global temperatures, more frequent and intense rainfall has "major implications for infectious diseases," said Paul Epstein, a tropical disease expert at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts.

"After floods one often sees clusters of vector-borne diseases—malaria, dengue fever, Japanese B encephalitis," Epstein said.

Floods often cause a jump in cholera and other water-borne diseases, as well as plague and other rodent-borne diseases, he added.

David Neelin, a climate scientist at the University of California in Los Angeles, takes a more cautious view of the study results.

"Rainfall changes remain among the hardest impacts of global warming to predict precisely," he said.

But, Neelin added, "Allan and Soden's results add fuel to the growing concern from a number of research groups [that] the extremes of rainfall may increase under global warming."

Black Widow Spider

2008-08-08T04:03:00.000-07:00

Black Widow Spider Profile

Black widows are notorious spiders identified by the colored, hourglass-shaped mark on their abdomens. Several species answer to the name, and they are found in temperate regions around the world.

This spider's bite is much feared because its venom is reported to be 15 times stronger than a rattlesnake's. In humans, bites produce muscle aches, nausea, and a paralysis of the diaphragm that can make breathing difficult; however, contrary to popular belief, most people who are bitten suffer no serious damage—let alone death. But bites can be fatal—usually to small children, the elderly, or the infirm. Fortunately, fatalities are fairly rare; the spiders are nonaggressive and bite only in self-defense, such as when someone accidentally sits on them.

The animals most at risk from the black widow's bite are insects—and male black widow spiders. Females sometimes kill and eat their counterparts after mating in a macabre behavior that gave the insect its name. Black widows are solitary year-round except during this violent mating ritual.

These spiders spin large webs in which females suspend a cocoon with hundreds of eggs. Spiderlings disperse soon after they leave their eggs, but the web remains. Black widow spiders also use their webs to ensnare their prey, which consists of flies, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars. Black widows are comb-footed spiders, which means they have bristles on their hind legs that they use to cover their prey with silk once it has been trapped.

To feed, black widows puncture their insect prey with their fangs and administer digestive enzymes to the corpses. By using these enzymes, and their gnashing fangs, the spiders liquefy their prey's bodies and suck up the resulting fluid.

Fast Facts

Type: Bug
Diet: Carnivore
Average lifespan in the wild: 1 to 3 years
Size: 1.5 in (38 mm) long, 0.25 in (6.4 mm) in diameter
Weight: .035 ounce (1 gram)
Did you know? Black widow spiders are considered the most venomous spiders in North America.
Size relative to a paper clip:

Artificial Spider Silk Could Be Used for Armor, More

2008-08-08T03:58:00.000-07:00

Scientists hope to soon be able to spin spider silk without the aid of spiders—achieving an age-old human quest to harness one of nature's most remarkable materials.

Randy Lewis is a professor of molecular biology at the University of Wyoming in Laramie. His team of researchers has successfully sequenced genes related to spider-silk production—uncovering the formula that spiders use to make silk from proteins. In the process the team acquired a better understanding of how the silk's structure is related to its amazing strength and elastic properties.

Their next task will be using what they've learned to spin spider silk themselves.

"Hopefully in the next month we'll start spinning fibers," Lewis told National Geographic News.

Scientists don't completely understand how spiders spin liquid protein into solid fibers. With their spinnerets, spiders somehow apply physical force to rearrange the proteins' molecular structure to turn the proteins into silk.

Understanding how spiders do this could someday result in new stronger and lighter materials that could replace plastics—and ease the cost to the environment that results from conventional plastic production. But duplicating spider silk in the lab has proven difficult.

Cracking the Code

By cracking the genetic code of spider silk, scientists hope not only to be able to duplicate the material but perhaps even to improve on it.

"We're trying to alter both the strength and elasticity of the natural silks," Lewis said. "We've made a number of different synthetic genes based on what we found in natural silks—but altered in ways to make them even stronger and more flexible. We're really trying to control elasticity, so you if come to me and ask for a certain tensile strength and elasticity, I can make a gene that will produce a fiber that does that for you."

Thomas Scheibel, from the department of chemistry at the Technical University of Munich, Germany, is engaged in similar types of "protein engineering." He recently published a review of his work in the journal Microbial Cell Factories.

"We're now not only after the uniqueness of the silk thread but the uniqueness of the single molecular building blocks within that thread," he said.

"We can play around with these modules and try to optimize structures for applications where you need unique specific properties—even those not found in natural silk," Scheibel said.

A range of products could someday ensue.

"I would start with something in the area of paper—paper that's strong, tough, can't be torn. For uses like banknotes silk could be a perfect material," Scheibel said.

"In the aircraft or automobile industry, think about a material that can absorb a lot of energy. If you have an accident [that causes a dent], it might be gone hours later, because the material can take up energy and reacquire its form. That's what happens to a web when an insect flies into the web."

Myriad of Potential Uses

Over hundreds of millions of years the 37,000 known species of spiders (and others unknown) have evolved and diversified many silks for their unique purposes. Best known and studied is silk secreted by a spider's major ampullate glands.

Orb-weaving spiders use this kind of silk like Spider-Man, as a dragline on which to make ascents and descents. The silk is also used to create spiders' familiar "wagon wheel" webs.

Spider silk has incredible tensile strength and is often touted as being several times stronger than steel of the same thickness. What's even more unique, however, is spider silk's elasticity.

"When we say spider silk is tougher than things like Kevlar [a plastic used to make body armor] that's what were talking about. Kevlar has higher tensile strength but it's not very stretchy," said Todd Blackledge, an entomologist at the University of Akron.

These properties suggest a potential for many applications for spider silk: extremely thin sutures for eye or nerve surgery, plasters and other wound covers, artificial ligaments and tendons, textiles for parachutes, protective clothing and body armor, ropes, fishing nets, and so on.

"One that's initially surprising is air bags," Lewis added. "Right now an air bag just sort of blasts you back into a seat. But if it were made out of this material it would actually be made to absorb energy and really reduce impact."

"Spidergoats"

Unlike silkworms, spiders tend to eat one another and cannot be effectively farmed. That's spawned a search for alternative silk sources. The most common method is introducing silk-spider genes into other organisms so that they can produce silk proteins that might later be used to create artificial silk threads. Host organisms range from simple bacteria to goats.

Quebec-based Nexia Biotechnologies created a stir in 2000 when it bred two "spidergoats" named Webster and Pete. The goats were altered with spider genes so that they could produce silk proteins in their milk. Nexia's artificial silk product is known as BioSteel, but the company is currently involved in a restructuring that has stalled research efforts.

Bacteria produce enough proteins for research work, but their long-term commercial production potential is unproven. Other efforts have focused on silk-producing plants such as tobacco or alfalfa and have met with some success.

But while producing spider-silk proteins is becoming more feasible, and scientists continually learn more about how to spin them into solid materials, major hurdles must be cleared before "spider products" become available.

So far, artificial fibers have lacked real spider silk's strength, and the artificial threads have been much wider than their natural counterparts. Before the advent of a spider-silk marketplace, human web weavers must close the technology gap on their arachnid counterparts.

Spiders Make Stronger Silk to Catch Bigger Prey

2008-08-08T03:49:00.000-07:00

Common house spiders adjust their weapons depending on the task, says a new study that found the species weaves webs of stronger silk when bigger insects are more abundant.

The skill allows house spiders to save energy by weaving easier-to-make, weaker silk strings when their prey is smaller.

"We knew from our past research on black widows that cobweb spiders adjust their web architectures in response to different availabilities of prey," said study author Todd Blackledge at the University of Akron, in Ohio.

"But we didn't know much about how spiders might alter the silk used to spin cobwebs," he said.

Common house spiders—(Achaearanea tepidariorum)—are members of the Theridiidae family of cobweb spiders, which includes the black widow.

(Learn about black widow spiders.)

Up to the Task
Researchers fed 27 common house spiders identical weights of either large, fast-moving crickets or small, slow-moving pill bugs for a week. Later, they examined the spiders' silk.

The team found that silk threads spun by the spiders that had been given faster food were thicker, stiffer, and better at shock absorption.

"Silk spun by spiders fed crickets could support twice as much weight as silk spun by spiders fed pill bugs," said study co-author Cecilia Boutry, also of the University of Akron.

"A single thread from their web could support a cricket twice as heavy as the spider itself without breaking," she said.

The authors suggest that the spiders could be sensing the prey that they are encountering and building silk that is appropriate for the task.

The change of diet might also affect the type of webs the spiders weave, they say.

The research was recently published online in the Journal of Experimental Zoology.

Chemistry of Strength

"The complexity of what these spiders are able to do is pretty striking," said zoologist Brook Swanson of Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington.

"Spider silk is being revealed to be not just one substance, but an array of compounds that can do different things," said Swanson, who was not involved in the study.

Because of its incredible strength and shock absorbing properties, spider silk is the subject of research aiming harness the natural technology for bulletproof armor and other materials.

"We need to tease apart whether these silks are being woven in different ways by the spiders or if they are in fact chemically different from one another," Swanson said.

"Once we figure that out, we may be able to replicate this variation when we make [artificial] silk in the lab."